Drug Database
SP

spironolactone

✓ Approved

Pfizer, Inc. · NR3C2 · Small Molecule

What is spironolactone?

spironolactone is a small molecule developed by Pfizer, Inc.. It is approved for therapeutic indications via oral (po).

Drug Profile

CompanyPfizer, Inc.
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetNR3C2, SCNN1A
RouteOral (PO)
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Pfizer, Inc.

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

spironolactone acts on 2 molecular targets:

NR3C2nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 2 (NR3C2VIT, MR)
SCNN1Asodium channel epithelial 1 subunit alpha (SCNEA, BESC2)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

spironolactone is developed for 3 unique indications across 3 therapeutic areas.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Cardiac disordersCardiac failure✓ Approved
Vascular disordersHypertension✓ Approved
General disorders and administration site conditionsOedema due to cardiac disease✓ Approved

Related Research Articles

PubMedFrontiers in dental medicine2026-07-17

Longitudinal changes in oral conditions and oral candidiasis in palliative care inpatients: a longitudinal observational study.

Fukutani Taeko T, Shibata Arisu A, Okazaki Yuki Y, Okugawa Chie C et al.

Oral health influences comfort, communication, and quality of life in palliative care. However, its clinical drivers and prognostic significance remain poorly understood. This study examined longitudinal changes in oral conditions over time and identified factors associated with oral deterioration or improvement. A longitudinal observational study was conducted involving 300 inpatients receiving palliative care. Each patient underwent routine oral assessments using the Oral Health Assessment Tool (OHAT) both before and after oral care. Clinical characteristics, functional status activities of daily living (ADL), number of remaining teeth, oral care frequency, and outcomes at discharge were analyzed. At baseline, 11.3% of the participants had oral candidiasis, which was associated with poorer oral health assessment scores. Among patients who subsequently died, the prevalence of candidiasis declined significantly after care, while oral health assessment scores worsened, particularly in the "tongue" and "saliva" categories. This paradoxical pattern may suggest a rapid shift in the microbiota immediately preceding death, despite oral care. In contrast, among patients who were discharged alive, candidiasis improved in 81.3% of affected individuals, and oral health assessment scores improved significantly. Post-care oral health assessment scores were influenced by activities of daily living, sex, and the number of remaining teeth. Patients with poorer baseline oral health assessment scores tended to show the greatest improvement, while those with initially better scores often deteriorated, possibly due to reduced care frequency. In palliative care, oral health is affected by activities of daily living, remaining teeth, sex, and the presence of candidiasis. Rapid intraoral decline near the end of life, coupled with reduced candidiasis, may reflect changes in oral conditions near the end of life; however, because no microbiological analyses were performed, this interpretation remains speculative. Longitudinal evaluation of functional status and oral conditions, potentially enhanced by artificial intelligence-based image analysis, may help clarify prognostic associations rather than provide definitive prognostic accuracy, and could support more tailored oral care.

PMID 42466194
Read full article →
PubMedBMC pediatrics2026-07-17

Oral health in global school health curriculum - scoping review.

Balachandran Parvathy P, Janakiram Chandrashekar C, Venkitachalam Ramanarayanan R, Karuveettil Vineetha V

Dental caries remains the most prevalent chronic disease of childhood, with substantial consequences for children's health, development, and educational outcomes. Schools provide a strategic platform for oral health promotion, particularly through structured curricula aligned with the World Health Organization's Health Promoting Schools framework. However, clarity regarding the nature, scope, and implementation of oral health curricula within school settings remains limited. This scoping review aimed to map global evidence on school-based oral health curricula, examining their characteristics, delivery methods, stakeholder involvement, and assessment approaches. This review followed JBI Methodology for scoping reviews and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Databases searched were Medline (Ovid), Cochrane Library, SCOPUS, CINAHL (Ovid), Dental & Oral Sciences source (Ovid), Web of Science, grey literature (like ProQuest, Google Scholar), ERIC, Epistemonikos, and government and professional dental associations' websites. Covidence software facilitated identification and screening of documents containing information about oral health in school curriculum. From 5,035 records identified, 42 documents met the inclusion criteria. The included evidence was heterogeneous comprising peer-reviewed studies, curriculum documents, websites, dissertations, conference proceedings, and media reports, with most published after 2000. The United States (n = 15) contributed the largest share of evidence, followed by India (n = 7) and United Kingdom (n = 6). Oral health curricula predominantly targeted primary school children focusing mainly on preventive topics such as oral hygiene practices, diet, and regular dental check-ups. Integrated curricula (n = 11)were reported more than stand-alone models (n = 1). Teachers were primary curriculum facilitators(n = 13). Only a minority of documents reported formal assessment methods, most commonly measuring changes in oral health knowledge and attitudes. Despite the high global burden of childhood oral diseases, evidence on structured school-based oral health curricula remains sparse and heterogeneous. Variability in terminology, curriculum design, delivery, and assessment highlights the need for standardized frameworks and clearer conceptualization of oral health curricula within school health programs. Strengthening and systematically integrating oral health into school curricula has the potential to support sustainable improvements in children's oral health and overall well-being.

PMID 42464210
Read full article →
PubMedJournal of chemical education2026-07-17

Oral Reports in an Organic Chemistry Laboratory Curriculum.

Mehltretter Sara A SA, Schmitzer-Torbert Neil N, Wysocki Laura M LM

The importance of teaching chemistry undergraduate students communication skills is widely recognized, but laboratory assessment is dominated by written reports with delayed feedback from instructors. The literature has demonstrated encouraging learning outcomes like positive student attitudes and deeper understanding associated with oral assessments, alongside the significant benefits of immediate feedback, but logistical challenges remain regarding implementation and consistent assessment across different instructors. This report describes an oral lab report in Organic Chemistry II that utilizes a technical, conversational approach and addresses some of the challenges associated with oral assessments, while retaining their previously documented benefits, including the development of oral communication skills. Using a rubric that is focused on principles of the Science Writing Heuristic, a comparison of students' overall score on written and oral lab reports showed that students scored higher on the oral lab report than with an analogous rubric on the written lab reports for a given experiment. Additionally, students score significantly higher on their oral report when compared to their written reports for other experiments that have a similar complexity. Oral reports can be conducted in-person or virtually without a significant difference in scoring. The challenge of instructor bias in scoring is discussed and instructor reflections are included.

PMID 42465675
Read full article →
PubMedFrontiers in pharmacology2026-07-17

Berberine in oral diseases: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications.

Wu Siyuan S, Wang Bowen B, Zhu Jiaqi J, Chen Hongli H et al.

Oral diseases, including periodontitis, oral mucosal diseases, dental caries, endodontic diseases, and oral cancer, are among the most prevalent diseases worldwide and impose substantial health and economic burdens. Current therapeutic strategies are often limited by incomplete efficacy, drug resistance, or adverse effects, highlighting the need for alternative pharmacological approaches. Berberine, a natural isoquinoline alkaloid derived from medicinal plants such as Coptis chinensis and Phellodendron species, has attracted increasing attention because of its broad pharmacological properties. Accumulating evidence indicates that berberine exerts antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, bone-regulating, and antitumor effects, which are closely associated with key pathogenic mechanisms involved in oral diseases. This review systematically summarizes the pleiotropic pharmacological effects of berberine and discusses its mechanistic roles in the management of periodontitis, recurrent aphthous ulcers, oral candidiasis, dental caries, pulpitis and apical periodontitis, and oral cancer. In addition, recent advances aimed at improving the bioavailability of berberine through novel drug delivery systems, including nanocarriers and hydrogels, are summarized. Finally, current challenges and future research directions are proposed to facilitate the clinical translation of berberine-based therapies in oral diseases.

PMID 42465994
Read full article →
PubMedFrontiers in immunology2026-07-17

Serum amyloid A in the oral microenvironment: implications for inflammation, host-microbe interactions, and disease monitoring.

Cheng Xuefei X, Gong Weichen W

To summarize current evidence regarding the role of serum amyloid A (SAA) in the oral microenvironment, with particular focus on its involvement in oral inflammation, host-microbe interactions, biofilm-associated chronic inflammation, and its potential utility as a diagnostic biomarker. Relevant literature regarding SAA in oral inflammation, host-microbe interactions, oral carcinogenesis, and salivary diagnostics was reviewed and synthesized. Particular emphasis was placed on studies investigating oral pathogens, inflammatory signaling pathways, biofilm-associated inflammation, salivary diagnostics, and veterinary applications of salivary SAA monitoring. Accumulating evidence indicates that SAA is not only a classical acute-phase protein but also an active regulator of inflammatory responses. In the oral cavity, pathogenic microorganisms and persistent biofilm-associated stimulation can induce local and systemic SAA expression through innate immune signaling pathways, including TLR2/TLR4 and NF-κB signaling. SAA contributes to neutrophil recruitment, macrophage activation, cytokine amplification, and maintenance of chronic inflammatory microenvironments. Emerging studies further suggest that SAA may participate in biofilm-associated inflammatory persistence and may contribute to tissue remodeling and disease progression. In addition, SAA can be detected in saliva and inflammatory oral fluids, highlighting its potential as a non-invasive biomarker for disease monitoring. Veterinary studies investigating salivary SAA further support the feasibility of continuous and minimally invasive inflammatory monitoring. SAA represents an important molecular link between oral microbial dysbiosis, chronic inflammation, and disease progression within the oral microenvironment. Beyond its role as a systemic inflammatory marker, SAA actively participates in immune regulation and host-microbe interactions. Salivary SAA monitoring may provide a promising non-invasive approach for longitudinal assessment of oral inflammatory diseases and related pathological conditions.

PMID 42465774
Read full article →
PubMedMicrobiological research2026-07-17

From transmission to manipulation: Ecological dynamics of the oral microbiota.

Liu Xue X, Cai Yijin Y, Huang Danni D, Xu Jin J et al.

Oral microbiota is a highly complex and dynamic ecosystem whose composition is continuously reshaped by transmission events. Transmission occurs primarily through two routes: vertical transmission and horizontal transmission. Vertical transmission encompasses intergenerational processes such as childbirth and feeding, while horizontal transmission depends on close contact and cohabitation among individuals. This transmission network is influenced by various factors, including host genetics, physiological states, dietary patterns, smoking and alcohol consumption habits, oral hygiene status, and strain-specific phenotypes. The host plays a role by altering the oral microenvironment, modulating local immune responses, or imposing ecological selective pressures. Microbial phenotypes, including environmental tolerance, colonization capacity, and virulence, collectively dictate transmission potential and mode. In addition, this review outlines intervention strategies based on the microbial transmission network, including probiotics and engineered probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics, bacteriophages, and oral microbiota transplantation. This review aims to systematically clarify the transmission mechanisms of oral microbiota, and to lay a theoretical foundation for the early prevention and targeted intervention of oral diseases.

PMID 42462525
Read full article →

+9996 more articles available with a free account

Sign up free to view all articles →

Ask about spironolactone