Drug Database
SP

spironolactone

✓ Approved

Pfizer, Inc. · NR3C2 · Small Molecule

What is spironolactone?

spironolactone is a small molecule developed by Pfizer, Inc.. It is approved for therapeutic indications via oral (po).

Drug Profile

CompanyPfizer, Inc.
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetNR3C2, SCNN1A
RouteOral (PO)
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Pfizer, Inc.

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

spironolactone acts on 2 molecular targets:

NR3C2nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 2 (NR3C2VIT, MR)
SCNN1Asodium channel epithelial 1 subunit alpha (SCNEA, BESC2)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

spironolactone is developed for 3 unique indications across 3 therapeutic areas.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Cardiac disordersCardiac failure✓ Approved
Vascular disordersHypertension✓ Approved
General disorders and administration site conditionsOedema due to cardiac disease✓ Approved

Related Research Articles

PubMedFrontiers in dental medicine2026-10-15

Sex difference in oral frailty Among older hospitalized cancer patients: a cross-sectional survey in taizhou, China.

Wu Wei-Dan WD, Lin Shanshan S, Tung Tao-Hsin TH, Yang Yu-Pei YP

Oral frailty is an associated factor for frailty and may increase the likelihood of transitioning from pre-frailty to frailty in older patients. Therefore, this study analyzed factors associated with oral frailty in older hospitalized patients with cancer in Taizhou, China. We included 190 older patients with cancer who were hospitalized from April to June 2024 were selected by convenience sampling in a tertiary hospital in Taizhou. A general information questionnaire and the Mini Nutritional Assessment - Short Form, Oral Health Assessment Tool and Oral Frailty Index-8 were used for the investigation. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with oral frailty. 190 older in-patients with cancer were included in the study, comprising 111 men and 79 women. The proportion at high risk of oral frailty was 54.7% (men: 57.7% vs. women: 50.6%, p = 0.338). Based on the multivariable logistic regression, patients who with oral frailty had significantly higher odds of denture (OR = 7.710, 95% CI: 2.932-20.275, p < 0.001) and malnutrition (OR = 2.607, 95% CI: 1.197-5.678, p = 0.016). The disparity was also found in the sex-stratified subgroup analyses. In women cancer patients, denture (OR = 6.417, 95% CI: 1.717-23.986, p = 0.006) was the significant factor related to oral frailty. In men cancer patients, denture (OR = 15.858, 95% CI: 3.227-77.929, p < 0.001), xerostomia (OR = 12.725, 95% CI: 1.607-100.763, p = 0.016), malnutrition (OR = 2.972, 95% CI: 1.010-8.743, p = 0.048), and poor oral health (OR = 5.279, 95% CI: 1.009-27.632, p = 0.049) were associated with oral frailty. Oral frailty was common among older cancer patients. Denture and malnutrition may help identify patients at increased likelihood of oral frailty. Therefore, early identify and appropriate treatment were required given the differences in the associated factors to oral frailty among men and women older cancer patients.

PMID 42876621
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PubMedFrontiers in oncology2026-10-15

Preparedness for early detection of oral cancer and oral potentially malignant disorders among Saudi dental students: a multicenter cross-sectional survey.

Tarakji Bassel B, Alsalhani Anas A, Mehsen Alali Faisal F, Alqhtani Nasser Raqe NR et al.

Oral cancer remains a major global health challenge, with delayed diagnosis contributing to poor prognosis and reduced survival. Dental students play an important role in early detection; however, deficiencies in preparedness and diagnostic confidence have been reported. This study assessed oral cancer knowledge, oral potentially malignant disorder (OPMD) awareness, and diagnostic confidence among Saudi dental students. A quantitative cross-sectional online survey was conducted among 354 dental students and interns from governmental and private dental schools in Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire assessed oral cancer knowledge, OPMD knowledge, and self-reported diagnostic confidence related to screening and biopsy procedures. Participants were classified as meeting or not meeting a study-defined minimum operational threshold of ≥60% of the maximum possible score in each domain; this cutoff was not interpreted as a definition of "good" performance or clinical competence. Associations between participant characteristics and study outcomes were examined using chi-square tests and multivariable binary logistic regression analyses. Overall, 81.9% of participants met the oral cancer knowledge threshold, 55.4% met the OPMD knowledge threshold, and 24.0% met the diagnostic confidence threshold. Most participants correctly identified major oral cancer risk factors, including tobacco smoking (97.2%), alcohol consumption (92.7%), and human papillomavirus infection (86.7%). However, clinically oriented response patterns highlighted areas for educational attention. 20.1% selected the prespecified specialist-referral response for management of a persistent suspicious lesion, while 35.6% recognized factors associated with increased malignant transformation risk in leukoplakia. Intern status remained independently associated with meeting the oral cancer knowledge and diagnostic confidence thresholds in multivariable analyses. The diagnostic-confidence outcome reflected self-perceived preparedness rather than observed screening, referral, or procedural competence. A high proportion of Saudi dental students met the study-defined oral cancer knowledge threshold; however, self-reported diagnostic confidence and preparedness for early detection remained considerably lower. Strengthening competency-based oral cancer education and clinical training may improve early detection preparedness and referral practices among future dental practitioners. Because the domains assessed different constructs and had different effective cutoffs, their threshold proportions should not be compared directly; the diagnostic-confidence findings represent perceived preparedness only.

PMID 42876606
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PubMedAdvanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)2026-10-15

Oral Actinomyces Species Exposure is Associated with Anxiety-Like Behavior, Mitochondrial Remodeling, and Altered GABAergic Pathways.

Salman Tabinda T, Luo Zhenwu Z, Johnson Douglas D, Noorani Arshad A AA et al.

The human oral microbiome is increasingly recognized as a contributor to brain health, yet its mechanisms remain unclear. We previously found an enrichment of oral Actinomyces species in chronic cannabis smokers. Wild-type C57BL/6 mice were orally inoculated with Actinomyces species following antibiotic preconditioning and assessed using behavioral assays, multi-tissue cytokine profiling, single-cell RNA sequencing, metabolomics, and biochemical analyses. Selected metabolites were tested in neuronal cells in vitro. Oral inoculation with cannabis use-associated Actinomyces species, especially A. meyeri, in mice was accompanied by anxiety-like behaviors, alterations in mitochondrial pathways, and reduced GABAergic markers, without evidence of bacterial brain translocation, changes in the canonical proinflammatory cytokines measured in this study, or memory decline. Notably, integrated oral and brain metabolomic analyses prioritized arginine and argininosuccinate as candidate mediators associated with Actinomyces exposure for further investigation. Selected metabolites associated with Actinomyces exposure altered mitochondrial function and oxidative stress in neuronal cells in vitro, supporting their potential role in mediating the observed molecular changes. Together, these results suggest that oral microbiome-associated metabolites may contribute to behavioral alterations through mechanisms involving mitochondrial remodeling and altered GABAergic pathways, supporting further investigation of the oral-brain metabolic axis in neuropsychiatric disorders.

PMID 42875679
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PubMedFrontiers in public health2026-10-15

Climate risk or healthcare investment? Explaining oral health outcomes across European Union member states.

Lupita Cassandra C, Perpelea Anca-Cristina AC, Rusu Laura-Cristina LC, Muntean Iulia I et al.

Climate change is a major public-health concern, but short-term population-level evidence linking annual climate variability to oral-health outcomes remains limited. This study evaluates within-country associations between temperature, extreme heat days, and three oral-health indicators across EU member states. A longitudinal ecological panel analysis was conducted for the 27 EU member states from 2016 to 2023. Daily temperatures at each country centroid were obtained from the Open-Meteo Historical Weather API and aggregated to annual mean temperature and days with maximum temperature above 30 °C. Outcomes were GBD 2023 carries and periodontal prevalence and Eurostat unmet dental care. Two-way fixed-effects models used country-clustered finite-sample-corrected standard errors and 999-replication wild-cluster bootstrap p-values. Neither mean annual temperature nor extreme heat days were associated with any outcome in the two-way fixed-effects models. Within R-squared values were 0.056 for caries, 0.032 for periodontal disease, and 0.044 for unmet dental care. Wild-cluster bootstrap inference confirmed the absence of associations at the 5% level. Quadratic temperature terms and climate-by-expenditure interactions were also non-significant. Over the eight-year study period, short-term within-country variation in the reconstructed climate indicators was not associated with the examined oral-health outcomes. Nonlinear and expenditure-interaction models were also null. Longer panels, spatially resolved exposure measures, and oral-health-specific financing, coverage, and utilization indicators are needed.

PMID 42876755
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PubMedJournal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine2026-10-15

Beyond hours per night: rethinking oral appliance adherence in OSA.

Russo Joseph J, Vidya Vinita V, Stansbury Robert R

PMID 42875597
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PubMedBrain and behavior2026-10-15

Naoxueshu Oral Liquid Attenuates Early Radiation-Induced Brain Injury in Rats.

Li Fuguang F, Qu Xiaolong X, Li Kuiyuan K, Li Guosong G et al.

To investigate the effect of Naoxueshu Oral Liquid on rats with radiation-induced brain injury. A total of 108 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to a control group, an irradiated + normal saline group (RBI+NS), and an irradiated + Naoxueshu Oral Liquid group (RBI+NXS). A radiation-induced brain injury model was established by single-dose whole-brain high-energy X-ray irradiation (30 Gy). After irradiation, rats received Naoxueshu Oral Liquid (0.5 mL/100 g/day, gavage) or normal saline for 14 days. Body weight was monitored, cerebral edema was assessed by brain tissue water content on Days 3, 7, and 14, histopathology was evaluated by hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, and Morris water maze training was conducted from Day 8 to Day 13 post-irradiation, followed by the probe trial on Day 14 post-irradiation. Body weight differed significantly among groups after irradiation (Day 3/6/9/12: all p < 0.01). Specifically, at Day 12, body weight was 328.17±20.10 g (control), 258.50±18.87 g (RBI+NS), and 302.83 ± 10.87 g (RBI+NXS); RBI+NXS was higher than RBI+NS (p < 0.01), while control versus RBI+NS remained different (p < 0.01). H&E staining showed widened perineuronal and perivascular spaces after irradiation, which were attenuated by Naoxueshu. In the Morris water maze, RBI+NS rats exhibited prolonged latency and fewer platform crossings; these impairments were improved after Naoxueshu treatment. Naoxueshu Oral Liquid reduced cerebral edema and improved Morris water maze performance in rats after whole-brain irradiation. Because behavioral outcomes were assessed only using the Morris water maze, the cognitive-related findings should be interpreted cautiously.

PMID 42875996
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