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diclofenac (Oxa Gel / diclofenac, topical)

✓ Approved

Actavis · PTGS1 · Small Molecule

What is diclofenac?

diclofenac is a small molecule developed by Actavis. It is approved for therapeutic indications via transdermal.

Drug Profile

Brand NamesOxa Gel, diclofenac, topical
CompanyActavis
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetPTGS1, PTGS2
RouteTransdermal
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Actavis

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

diclofenac acts on 2 molecular targets:

PTGS1prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 (COX3, PCOX1)
PTGS2prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (GRIPGHS, hCox-2)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

diclofenac is developed for 5 unique indications across 3 therapeutic areas.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Musculoskeletal and connective tissue disordersMusculoskeletal pain✓ Approved
Musculoskeletal and connective tissue disordersMyositis✓ Approved
Musculoskeletal and connective tissue disordersRheumatoid arthritis✓ Approved
Injury, poisoning and procedural complicationsTraumatic shock✓ Approved
Skin and subcutaneous tissue disordersActinic keratosisPhase III

Related Research Articles

PubMedInternational journal of dermatology2026-10-15

Topical Finasteride 0.25% Solution for Female Pattern Hair Loss (FPHL) in Postmenopausal Women: A 52-Week Retrospective Observational Study.

Piraccini Bianca Maria BM, Gupta Aditya K AK, Cedirian Stephano S, Rapparini Luca L et al.

Female pattern hair loss (FPHL), characterized by progressive follicular miniaturization, is the most common cause of hair thinning in women and increases in prevalence after menopause. While topical minoxidil is approved for FPHL, clinical response is variable. Oral finasteride is used off label in postmenopausal women but raises concerns regarding systemic adverse effects. Topical finasteride may represent an alternative with reduced systemic exposure. A retrospective observational study was conducted in 26 postmenopausal women with FPHL who were treated with topical finasteride 0.25% monotherapy for 52 weeks. Clinical and trichoscopic images obtained at baseline and Week 52 were used to assess changes in hair density, hair thickness, and the terminal-to-vellus hair ratio in predefined target areas in frontal or vertex regions. Patient-reported tolerability and compliance, as well as patient- and clinician-reported effectiveness, were assessed using 3-point ordinal scales. Mean hair density increased from 149.48 ± 34.32 to 172.84 ± 35.29 hairs/cm2 (p < 0.001). Hair thickness increased from 40.42 ± 7.15 μm to 51.04 ± 9.28 μm (p < 0.001), and terminal-to-vellus hair ratio increased from 1.04 ± 0.61 to 1.56 ± 0.64 (p < 0.001). Subjective patient and clinician assessments indicated good-to-excellent effectiveness. No adverse events were recorded; tolerability and compliance were rated highly by patients. Topical finasteride 0.25% monotherapy was associated with significant improvements in hair density and thickness, alongside favorable reported tolerability and compliance. These findings provide preliminary real-world observational data regarding topical finasteride use in the underserved population of postmenopausal women with FPHL.

PMID 42876360
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PubMedZhonghua er ke za zhi = Chinese journal of pediatrics2026-10-15

[Clinical analysis of 4 children with tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis syndrome].

Wang N N NN, Tu J J, Chen C Y CY

Objective: To investigate the clinical and pathological characteristics, treatment, and prognosis of tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis (TINU) syndrome in children. Methods: This case series study analyzed the clinical characteristics, laboratory examinations, renal biopsy findings, treatment courses, and outcomes of 4 children diagnosed with TINU syndrome, who were hospitalized in the Department of Nephrology, Capital Center for Children's Health affiliated to Capital Medical University between November 2017 and April 2024. Results: Four children with TINU syndrome included 2 males and 2 females. Their ages at diagnosis were 13 years and 11 months, 13 years and 6 months, 13 years and 7 months, and 11 years and 8 months respectively. Three patients had a history of infection or drug exposure before disease onset. Ocular symptoms preceded renal involvement by 1 month in 1 case, whereas uveitis developed 8.0, 0.5 and 14.0 months after renal involvement in the other 3 cases. All patients had acute kidney injury (AKI), including stage 2 AKI in 3 patients and stage 3 AKI in 1 patient. Glycosuria and elevated urinary β2-microglobulin levels occurred, and varying degrees of proteinuria and leukocyturia occurred in 3 patients. Serum creatinine levels at disease onset were markedly elevated at 130.0, 103.4, 188.4 and 105.7 μmol/L, and estimated glomerular filtration rates were reduced to 50.5, 56.4, 28.9 and 53.8 ml/(min·1.73 m²). Renal biopsies showed acute interstitial nephritis, and the predominant ocular manifestation was bilateral anterior uveitis. All patients received systemic glucocorticoid therapy and topical corticosteroid eye drops, and 1 patient was additionally treated with mycophenolate mofetil. During follow-up periods of 57, 82, 14 and 66 months, respectively, 1 patient progressed to stage 2 chronic kidney disease. Proteinuria resolved and ocular symptoms recurred only in 1 patient. Conclusions: Renal involvement generally has a favorable prognosis in children with TINU syndrome. However renal function may not fully recover in some patients, and uveitis may persist or recur, underscoring the need for renal and ophthalmic combined screening and long-term multidisciplinary follow-up.

PMID 42876103
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PubMedEvidence-based dentistry2026-10-15

How do different topical fluoride applications affect salivary and plaque fluoride levels for young children with dental caries?

Timms Laura L, Marshman Zoe Z

Asavalertpalakorn C, Jirarattanasopha V, Nakornchai S, Horsophonphong S. Plaque and salivary fluoride levels in preschoolers following applications of silver diamine fluoride, sodium fluoride varnish, and their combination: a randomized clinical trial. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2026;36:81-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.70030 . A three-arm randomised controlled trial compared the salivary and plaque fluoride levels for young children, following application of different fluoride prevention and treatment procedures (silver diamine fluoride, sodium fluoride varnish and silver diamine fluoride and sodium fluoride varnish together), in child development centres in Thailand. Children aged 3-6 were selected who had at least one carious tooth reaching dentine in the primary dentition. Included children were considered healthy and co-operative. Children who had received professional fluoride application within the last three months were excluded, or those with a known allergy to any component. Twenty children were randomised to each group. Group 1 received silver diamine fluoride application (1 drop) to dentinal carious lesions; group 2 received sodium fluoride varnish application (0.25 ml) to all erupted primary teeth; group 3 received both the silver diamine fluoride and sodium fluoride varnish interventions. Fluoride applications were not applied to pulpally involved teeth. Plaque and saliva samples were collected at baseline (prior to fluoride application), at 5, 30 and 60 minutes, and at 24 and 48 hours. Kruskal-Wallis and Friedman tests were used to compare the 3 groups at the various time points. A Bonferroni correction was applied to account for the multiple comparisons. In total, 60 children were randomised, data were analysed for 50 children's salivary samples and 49 children's plaque samples. The mean age was 3.7 months, with children having a mean of 7.6 decayed, missing or filled teeth. At the shorter-term (5, 30 and 60 minute) time points, the salivary fluoride levels were significantly higher in the sodium fluoride varnish alone and silver diamine fluoride with sodium fluoride varnish groups than in the silver diamine fluoride alone group. There was no difference in the silver diamine fluoride with sodium fluoride varnish and sodium fluoride varnish alone groups for both salivary and plaque fluoride levels. Considering fluoride levels in plaque, the sodium fluoride varnish group had significantly higher levels at 5 and 60 minutes than the silver diamine fluoride group and the silver diamine fluoride with sodium fluoride varnish group was significantly higher at 30 and 60 minutes in comparison to silver diamine fluoride alone. At 60 minutes, the silver diamine fluoride and sodium fluoride varnish groups had returned to baseline; this was at 24 hours for the silver diamine fluoride with sodium fluoride varnish group for salivary fluoride. For plaque levels, the return to baseline was at 60 minutes for the silver diamine fluoride group, and 24 hours for the sodium fluoride varnish and silver diamine fluoride with sodium fluoride varnish groups. Children receiving sodium fluoride varnish and silver diamine fluoride had higher plaque and salivary fluoride levels than those treated with silver diamine fluoride alone in the short term. Plaque and salivary fluoride levels returned to baseline at 24 hours for all groups.

PMID 42875550
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PubMedJournal of ocular pharmacology and therapeutics : the official journal of the Association for Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics2026-10-14

Topical Tacrolimus in Ocular Disease: A Narrative Review of Mechanism of Action and Therapeutic Applications.

Abu Serhan Hashem H, Abu Al-Burak Salem S, Hassan Lameece L, Alshammari Mohammad M et al.

Immune-mediated inflammatory disorders of the ocular surface and anterior segment frequently require sustained immunosuppression, yet prolonged topical corticosteroid use carries the risk of glaucoma, cataract, and infection. Tacrolimus, a macrolide calcineurin inhibitor, has emerged as a steroid-sparing alternative for T-cell-mediated ocular disease. This review summarizes the mechanism of action, ocular pharmacology, clinical applications, and safety profile of topical tacrolimus. Narrative synthesis of the peer-reviewed literature. Tacrolimus binds the immunophilin FK506-binding protein 12; the resulting complex inhibits the phosphatase calcineurin, preventing dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) and thereby suppressing transcription of interleukin-2 and a broad program of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The downstream result is reduced activation across the Th1, Th2, and Th17 lineages, diminished T-follicular helper and B-cell responses, stabilization of mast cells and eosinophils, and anti-angiogenic effects. Compounded topical formulations (typically 0.01%-0.1%) penetrate the cornea and reach therapeutic aqueous concentrations. Topical tacrolimus has shown efficacy in vernal and atopic keratoconjunctivitis, anterior uveitis, scleritis, ocular graft-versus-host disease, cicatrizing conjunctivitis, Thygeson superficial punctate keratitis, autoimmune polyglandular syndrome-1-associated keratitis, and corneal graft rejection. Topical tacrolimus is an effective steroid-sparing immunomodulator for a broad spectrum of T-cell-mediated ocular disease, with a favorable safety profile notable for the absence of steroid-related rises in intraocular pressure or cataractogenesis. Standardized formulations and prospective comparative trials remain priorities.

PMID 42870636
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PubMedInternational journal of pharmaceutics2026-10-14

Formulation and evaluation of tailored emulgels for enhanced topical cutaneous and ophthalmic delivery of antimicrobial and keratolytic agents.

Shah Ketan V KV, Ashara Kalpesh C KC

Topical drug delivery systems are increasingly favored for their ability to bypass first-pass metabolism and minimize systemic adverse effects. Emulgels, which combine the therapeutic benefits of emulsions and gels, offer a stable and effective platform for the delivery of both lipophilic and hydrophilic antimicrobial agents. The present study was designed to develop and optimize a versatile dual-route emulgel platform, featuring distinct formulations tailored for topical cutaneous delivery (incorporating salicylic acid for keratolytic and anti-acne applications) and topical ophthalmic delivery (incorporating ciprofloxacin and chloramphenicol for ocular surface infections), utilizing advanced statistical modeling to achieve superior therapeutic performance. Emulgel formulations were prepared by integrating drug-loaded oil phases into aqueous gelling matrices, utilizing high-shear mixing to ensure homogeneity. Optimization of formulation variables, including polymer concentration and surfactant-to-co-surfactant ratios, was achieved using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on reduced polynomial models. The optimized formulations were evaluated for physical stability, rheological profile, globule size, and in vitro drug release kinetics across Cellophane® membranes. Statistical modeling identified ideal concentrations (1.25% gelling agent and 1:2 surfactant ratio) that yielded stable, nanostructured systems with globule sizes in the range of 185 to 210 nm. The formulations exhibited pseudoplastic, shear-thinning behavior, ensuring ease of application and structural stability over the study duration. In vitro release studies demonstrated sustained drug release profiles, with optimized batches showing significant permeability enhancement (Kp) and steady-state flux (Jss) compared to conventional topical preparations (p < 0.05 for all). Accelerated stability results over 90 days showed that the emulgels maintained their initial pH (5.6-6.1) and a smooth, white appearance. Quantitative assessment utilized similarity factors (f1 and f2), where f1 < 15 and f2 > 50 confirmed profile similarity after storage. The safety profile of the optimized emulgels evaluated via skin and eye irritation tests had no signs of erythema, edema, or clinical discomfort were observed during the study period. The study successfully developed stable, specialized emulgel formulations optimized for separate topical cutaneous and ophthalmic applications. The systematic integration of RSM enabled the precise formulation of delivery systems providing enhanced keratolytic, anti-acne, and anti-infective efficacy, supporting their potential application as robust alternatives to conventional vehicles in the management of localized dermal and ocular conditions.

PMID 42874970
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PubMedACS pharmacology & translational science2026-10-14

Assessment of the Wound-Healing Properties of Almond Oil in a Murine Excisional Wound Model: Biochemical Mechanisms and Translational Perspectives.

Arangia Alessia A, Aparo Regina R, Cordaro Marika M, Fusco Roberta R et al.

Wound healing is a complex biological process involving overlapping phases of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, coordinated by a network of cytokines, growth factors, and cellular responses. Natural products, particularly plant oils, are increasingly being studied for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative properties. Specifically, this study evaluated the healing potential of almond oil through topical application in an excisional wound model induced in mice, treated once daily for 7 days. Histological, biochemical, and molecular analyses demonstrated that topical treatment with almond oil accelerates wound healing, collagen deposition, and re-epithelialization, and stimulates angiogenesis. At the molecular level, almond oil reduced the expression of MMP-9, increased TGF-β and VEGF, and activated the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway, helping limit oxidative and nitrosative stress. Furthermore, it inhibited NF-κB activation and reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6). These results indicate that almond oil promotes skin healing through synergistic anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and regenerative actions, supporting its use as a natural and sustainable topical agent for wound management in clinical settings.

PMID 42871691
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